The prostate gland
What can go wrong with the prostate gland?
Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for
primary care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document
January 2010
Colin SM, Metcalfe C, Donovan J, Lane JA, Davis M, Neal D, Hamdy
F,
Martin RM. Associations of lower urinary tract symptoms with
prostate-specific antigen levels, and screen detected localized and
advanced prostate cancer: a case-control study nested within the UK
based population ProtecT (Prostate testing for cancer and
Treatment) study. BJU Int, 2008, 102 (10):1400-140
Crawford E D. Understanding the Epidemiology, Natural History
and Key Pathways Involved in Prostate Cancer. 2009 Urology;
73:5A
Johansson J-E, Andren O, Andersson S O, Dickamn P W, Holmberg L,
Magnuson A, Adami H O. Natural History of Early Localised Prostate
Cancer, JAMA 2004; 291 (22) 2713-2719
NICE. The management of lower urinary tract symptoms in men.
2010 Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for
primary care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document
January 2010
What is benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)?
Trueman P, Hood SC, Nayak US, Mrazek MF. Prevalence of lower
urinary tract symptoms and self-reported diagnosed 'benign
prostatic hyperplasia,' and their effect on quality of life in a
community-based survey of men in the UK. BJU Int 1999; 83:
410-415.
Wei JT, Calhoun E, Jacobsen SJ. Urologic diseases in America
project: benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Urology 2005;
173: 1256-1261.
What is prostate cancer?
ISD Online. Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Survival data.
Accessed 2010
Northern Ireland Cancer Registry. Cancer Incidence and Mortality.
Accessed 2010
Office for National Statistics, Cancer Statistics registrations:
Registrations of cancer diagnosed in 2007, England. Series MB1
no.38. 2010, National Statistics: London.
Welsh Cancer Intelligence and Surveillance Unit, Cancer Incidence
in Wales. 2010
Crawford E D. Understanding the Epidemiology, Natural History and
Key Pathways Involved in Prostate Cancer. 2009 Urology; 73:5A
Johansson J-E, Andren O, Andersson S O, Dickamn P W, Holmberg L,
Magnuson A, Adami H O. Natural History of Early Localised Prostate
Cancer, JAMA 2004; 291 (22) 2713-2719
Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary
care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January
2010
Sakr WA, Grignon DJ, Haas GP, Heilbrun LK, Pontes JE, Crissman JD.
Age and racial distribution of prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia.
Eur Urol, 1996, 30(2):138-144.
What is my risk of developing prostate cancer?
Age
ISD Online. Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Survival data.
Accessed 2010
Northern Ireland Cancer Registry. Cancer Incidence and Mortality.
Accessed 2010
Office for National Statistics, Cancer Statistics registrations:
Registrations of cancer diagnosed in 2007, England. Series MB1
no.38. 2010, National Statistics: London.
Welsh Cancer Intelligence and Surveillance Unit, Cancer Incidence
in Wales. 2010
Family history
Dianat SS, Margreiter M, Eckersberger E, Finkelstein J, Kuehas
F, Herwig R, Ayati M, Lepor H, Djavan B. Gene polymorphisms and
prostate cancer: the evidence 2009 BJUI: 104 1560-1572
Elo JP and Visakorpi T. Molecular genetics of prostate
cancer. Ann Med 2001;33(2):130-41
Johns LE, Houlston RS. A systematic review and meta-analysis of
familial prostate cancer risk. BJU International 2003; 91:
789-794.
McPherson K, Steel CM, Dixon JM. Breast cancer: epidemiology,
risk factors and genetics. British Medical Journal
2000;321:624–8.
Ford D, Easton D, Stratton M, Narad S, Goldgar D, Devilee P, et
al.Genetic heterogeneity and pebetrance analysis of the BRCA1 and
BRCA2 genes in breast cancer families. American Journal of Human
Genetics 1998;62:676–89.
Easton DF, Ford D, Bishop DT, and the Breast Cancer Linkage
Consortium. Breast and ovarian cancer incidence in BRCA1 mutation
carriers. American Journal of Human Genetics 1995;56(1):
265–71.
Edwards SM, Kote-Jarai Z, Meitz J, Hamoudi R, Hope Q, Osin P,
Jackson R,
Southgate C, Singh R, Falconer A, Dearnaley DP, Ardern-Jones A,
Murkin A,
Dowe A, Kelly J, Williams S, Oram R, Stevens M, Teare DM, Ponder
BA,
Gayther SA, Easton DF, Eeles RA. Two percent of men with
early-onset prostate
cancer harbor germline mutations in the BRCA2 gene. Am J Hum Genet,
2003,
72(1):1-12.
Thompson D, Easton DF. Cancer Incidence in BRCA1 mutation
carriers. J Natl
Cancer Inst, 2002, 94(18):1358-1365.
Mitra AV, Bancroft EK, Barbachano Y et al Targeted prostate
cancer screening in men with mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 detects
aggressive prostate cancer: preliminary analysis of the results of
the IMPACT study.BJU Int. 2010 Sep 14. doi:
10.1111/j.1464-410X.2010.09648.x. [Epub ahead of print]
Ethnicity
Ben-Shlomo Y, Evans S, Ibrahim F, et al The Risk of
Prostate Cancer amongst Black Men in the United Kingdom: The
PROCESS Cohort Study. Eur Urol 2008; 53(1):99-105
Metcalfe C, Evans S, Ibrahim F, Patel B, Anson K, Chinegwundoh F,
Corbishley C, Gillatt D, Kirby R, Muir G, Nargund V, Popert R,
Persad R, Ben-Shlomo Y. Pathways to diagnosis for black men and
white men found to have prostate cancer: the PROCESS cohort study.
British Journal of Cancer (2008)
Xu J, Kibel AS, Hu JJ, Turner AR, Pruett K, Zheng SL, Sun J,
Isaacs SD, Wiley KE, Kim ST, Hsu FC, Wu W, Torti FM, Walsh PC,
Chang BL, Isaacs WB.Prostate cancer risk associated loci in African
Americans Cancer Epidemiol Markers Prev 2009; 18(7) 2145-49).
Hooker S, Hernandez W, Chen H, Robbins C, Torres JB, Ahaghotu C,
Carpten J, Kittles RA.Replication of prostate cancer risk loci on
8q24, 11q13, 17q12, 19q33, and Xp11 in African Americans Prostate
2010 Feb 15;70(3):270-6).
Wang Y, Ray AM, Johnson EK, Zuhlke KA, Cooney KA, Lange EM.
Evidence for an association between prostate cancer and chromosome
8q24 and 10q11 genetic variants in African American men: The flint
men's health study† Prostate 2010 Aug 17).
Lavender NA, Benford ML, VanCleave TT, Brock GN, Kittles RA,
Moore JH, Hein DW, Kidd LC.Examination of polymorphic glutathione
S-transferase (GST) genes, tobacco smoking and prostate cancer risk
among Men of African Descent: A case-control study BMC Cancer 2009
9: 397)
Mason TE, Ricks-Santi L, Chen W, Apprey V, Joykutty J, Ahaghotu
C, Kittles R, Bonney G, Dunston GM.Association of CD14 variant with
prostate cancer in African American men Prostate 2010 Feb
15;70(3):262-9)
National Cancer Intelligent Network. Cancer incidence and
survival by major ethnic group, England, 2002-2006.
Metcalfe C, Patel B, Evans S, Ibrahim F, Anson K, Chinegwundoh
F, Corbishley C, Dorling D, Thomas B, Gillatt D, Kirby R, Muir G,
Nargund V, Popert R, Persad R, Ben-Shlomo Y; PROCESS Study Group.
The risk of prostate cancer amongst South Asian men in southern
England: the PROCESS cohort study. BJU Int. 2008
Nov;102(10):1407-12.
Ford D, Easton D, Stratton M, Narad S, Goldgar D, Devilee P, et
al.Genetic heterogeneity and pebetrance analysis of the BRCA1 and
BRCA2 genes in breast cancer families. American Journal of Human
Genetics 1998;62:676–89.
Diet
Allen NE, Key TJ, Appleby PN et al. Animal foods, protein,
calcium and prostate cancer risk: the European Prospective
Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Br J Cancer. 2008 May
6;98(9):1574-81.
Gao X, LaValley MP, Tucker KL. Prospective Studies of dairy product
and calcium intakes and prostate cancer risk: A meta-analysis. J
Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(23):1768-77
Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Platz EA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Risk
factors for prostate cancer incidence and progression in the health
professionals follow-up study. Int.J Cancer 2007; 121
(7):1571-8
Ma RW, Chapman K. A systematic review of the effect of diet
in prostate cancer prevention and treatment. Journal of Human
Nutrition and Dietetics : the Official Journal of the British
Dietetic Association 2009, 22(3):187-99
Orsini N, Bellocco R, Bottai M, Pagano M, Andersson SO, Johansson
JE, Giovannucci E, Wolk A. A prospective study of lifetime physical
activity and prostate cancer incidence and mortality Br J Cancer.
2009 Dec 1;101(11):1932-8. Epub 2009 Oct 27.
World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer. Food,
Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global
Perspective. Washington DC:AICR, 2007
Visiting your GP
What could affect my PSA level?
Price CP, Allard J, Davies G, Dawnay A, Duffy MJ, France M,
Mandarino G, Ward AM, Patel B, Sibley P, Sturgeon C. Pre- and
post-analytical factors that may influence the use of serum
prostate specific antigen and its isoforms in a screening programme
for prostate cancer. Ann Clin Biochem 2001; 38: 188-216.
Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for
primary care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document
January 2010
Regular PSA tests
D’Amico et al. Pretreatment PSA velocity and
risk of death from prostate cancer following external beam
radiotherapy. JAMA 2005: 294 (4)
D’Amico et al. Preoperative PSA velocity and risk of death from
prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy. N Engl J Med. 2004:
351 (2)
Carter HB et al. Detection of life-threatening prostate cancer
with prostate-specific antigen velocity during a window of
curability. J Nat Cancer Inst 2006;98: 1521-1527
Loeb, Carter et al. Distribution of PSA velocity total PSA
levels: data from the Baltimore study of aging. Urology 2011; 77
(1)
Vickers et al. Systematic review of pretreatment
prostate-specific antigen velocity and doubling time as predictors
for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:398-403
Vickers et al. An empirical evaluation of guidelines on
prostate-specific antigen velocity in prostate cancer detection. J
Nat Cancer Inst 2011;13 (4):616-7Digital rectal examination
(DRE)
Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for
primary care; PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document
January 2010
Seeing a specialist
TRUS guided biopsy
PCRMP Guide no1. Undertaking a transrectal ultrasound guided
biopsy of the prostate. Dec 2006
What are the disadvantages of having a biopsy?
Eichler K, Hempel S, Wilby J, Myers L, Bachmann LM, Kleijnen
J. Diagnostic value of systematic prostate biopsy methods in the
investigation for prostate cancer: a systematic review. Centre for
Reviews and Dissemination, University of York; 2005.
Making a decision
Draisma G, Boer R, Otto SJ, van der Cruijsen IW, Damhuis
RA, Schröder FH, de Koning HJ. Lead times and overdetection due to
prostate-specific antigen screening: estimates from the European
Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer. J Natl Cancer
Inst 2003; 95(12): 868-878.
Etzioni R, Penson DF, Legler JM, di Tommaso D, Boer R, Gann PH,
Feuer EJ. Overdiagnosis due to prostate-specific antigen screening:
lessons from US prostate cancer incidence trends. J Natl Cancer
Inst. 2002; 94: 981-990.
Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary
care; PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January
2010
Selley S, Donovan J, Faulkner A, Coast J, Gillatt D. Diagnosis,
management and screening of early localised prostate cancer. Health
Technol Assess 1997;1(2):i, 1-i,96.
Stamey TA, Caldwell M, McNeal JE, Nolley R, Hemenez M, Downs J. The
prostate specific antigen era in the United States is over for
prostate cancer: what happened in the last 20 years? J Urol. 2004;
172: 1297-301.
Yao SL, Lu-Yao G. Understanding and appreciating overdiagnosis in
the PSA era. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94: 958-960.
Why is there no screening programme for all men?
Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Tammela TL, Ciatto S, Nelen V,
Kwiatkowski M, Lujan M, Lilja H, Zappa M, Denis LJ, Recker F,
Berenguer A, Määttänen L, Bangma CH, Aus G, Villers A, Rebillard X,
van der Kwast T, Blijenberg BG, Moss SM, de Koning HJ, Auvinen A.
Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European
study N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1320-8. Epub 2009 Mar
18.
Other tests
Catalone W J, Partin AW, SLawin KM, et al. Use of
percentage of free prostate-specific antigen to enhance
differentiaion of prostate cancer from benign prostatic disease: a
prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 1998; 279: 1542-7
Froehner M, Buck L M, Koch R, Hakenburg O W, Wirth M P.
Derivatives of prostate specific antigen as predictors of
incidental prostate cancer. BJUI 2009 104, 25-28
Noguerira L, Corradi R, Eastham J. Other biomarkers for detecting
prostate cancer. BJUI 2009 105, 166-169
Schilling D, de Reijke T, Tombal B, de la Taille A, Hennenlotter
J, Stenzl A. The Prostate Cancer gene 3 assay: indications for use
in clinical practice. BJU I 2009 105, 452-455
Schilling D, de Reijke T, Tombal B, de la Taille A, Hennenlotter J,
Stenzl A Follow-up of men with an elevated PCA3 score and a
negative biopsy: does an elevated PCA3 score indeed predict the
presence of prostate cancer? BJU Int. 2010 Feb;105(4):452-5.